Abstract:
This paper sets the basis for the need of a comprehensive study on how to reduce future
generational growth of terrorists, through a comprehensive poverty reduction
strategy based on four principle pillars—governance and rule of law, security,
economic revitalization, infrastructure and basic services. Although the actual
research will be done as a mixed method study, this paper only analyzed the
processes, especially the qualitative aspect of the actual research. Developing
a qualitative research plan for a pending dissertation on how to reduce future
generational growth of terrorists is a partial fulfillment for a PhD and
RSCH-8300.
Table of Content
Content Page
Background of the
study
4
Summary of the
literature of 10 articles related to the
problem 4
Gaps and or
deficiencies in prior
research 6
Importance of the
research
7
Purpose of the
research
8
Problem
statement
8
Why pursued the
study and for whom is it
important?
9
Research design:
phenomenology 10
Research
questions 11
Theoretical or
conceptual
framework 12
Hypotheses 13
Data collection
procedures and research
plan 13
Interview in
data collection process 14
Kind of
interviewing protocol to
develop 14
Data management
techniques
employ 15
Role as the
researcher 15
Sampling 15
Sample size and
how it was decided
16
Why the sample
size 16
Factors that
contribute to this decision of the sample
size 17
Data analysis and
interpretation
plan 17
Ethical
Concerns 18
References 18
Bibliography
21
Background of the study
The United
States’ efforts to fight terrorism, especially after 9/11, have mostly
emphasized counter-terrorism (Choi, 2010). While such efforts have been
extremely successful, they have not holistically addressed future generational
growth of terrorists (Greer, 2011). Hence, this problem of not having a
successful plan to tackle the future growth of terrorism is hindering current
and future counter-terrorism efforts (Greer, 2011; Nye, 2006; Martin, 2002;
Choi, 2010). Studies have systematically found that improving the rule of law
in non-democratic societies noted of harboring terrorists, reduces current and
future terrorism incidences (Choi, 2010; Greer, 2011). Although this paper does
not attempt to undertake the actual study, it attempted to demonstrate how the qualitative
aspect of the pending research will be conducted. It also showed the need to
fill the gap created by Choi (2010) and Greer (2011).
Summary of the literature of 10 articles related to the problem
Many studies have been conducted on the causes and methods of fighting terrorism, but not on the
reduction of the future growth of terrorists. My dissertation will use social
theories to evaluate the reduction of future generational growth of terrorists
through poverty reduction strategies. Social theories comprise of sociological
profiling, general strain theory, and social learning. In theory, sociological
profiling offers no explanation to terrorism, but focuses on generic group
dynamics of terrorists such as age, education, social class and gender (Yayla,
2005; Russell & Miller, 1977). Through sociological profiling, there is an
overarching assumption that terrorists functionally share common
socio-demographic traits (Hudson, 2000). Though sociological profiling does not
explain the relationship of demographic attributes to one’s involvement in
terrorism, it serves as a great platform of understanding the relationship
between terrorism and demographic attributes. Relative deprivation theory
explains the effects of political violence resulting from the gap between
expectation and actual achievement. Frustration-aggression theory asserts that
political violence is a result of desperation, which occurs in the face of
oppression. Finally, social learning theory suggests that violence results from
the observation and imitation of an aggressive role model.
The actual study
will evaluate and report how future generational growth of terrorists will be
reduced through a comprehensive poverty reduction strategy based on four
principle pillars—governance and rule of law, security, economic
revitalization, infrastructure and basic services. Each of these pillars will
be extensively covered under the definition of terms in chapter one.
Additionally, this study intends to compliment previous studies conducted by
Greer (2010) and Choi (2010) which found that upholding the rule of law reduces
terrorism incidences and future generational growth of terrorists.
In addition to
social theory outlined in the introduction of this analysis, is the rational
choice theory of terrorism, theory of planned behavior, subjective uncertainty
theory, the system justification theory, the mind set theory, and the
tripartite model of security-self validation hypothesis, attachment theory, and
terror management theory (Moss, 2008). As discussed in (Crenshaw, 1992; Sandler
& Lapan, 1998; Victoroff, 2005; Wilson, 2000), rational choice theory of
terrorism holds the view that the actions that terrorists demonstrate are
rationally calculative and well thought out. This view is against the backdrop
that the act of terrorism might unrepresentatively be pathologically illogical,
though on the other hand, it may equally symbolize the best opportunity to
fulfill one’s personal desire.
In the same vein,
Cooke and Sheeran (2004) stated that the theory of planned human behaviors is
driven by personal attitudes, social pressures and sense of control. For
instance, depending on the circumstance, one is able to carry out rather than
reject his/her intentions (such as a plan to abstain from alcohol drinking)
especially if such a promise has been professed by the individual many times
before.
According to
Winkates (2007), “religion plays a big role in the life of most terrorists and
their terrorist missions. That being the case, my proposed dissertation will
evaluate the role of religion through the theory of terrorism. Studies have
shown that both religion and philosophy are two faculties of theology that
enormously account for terrorism (Stitt, 2003; Kraemer, 2004). In addition, studies
have indicated that one key motivating factor of terrorism is religious
fulfillment (Hoffman, 1993; Aydin, 2007). Moreover, Islam is sometimes used as
a tool of self identification and psychological support for extremist religious
groups linked to terrorism (Aydin, 2007). At such, there is the overriding
theory that not only did Allah (God) sanctions terrorism, he actually desires
it—in so far as the purported cause is sacredly connected to a gloomy future
and avenging actions of the past (p. 10). In addition to these references,
there is a bibliography of texts at the bottom of this analysis that will be
used as references for the literature review of the research.
Gaps and or deficiencies in prior research
There is a
plethora of studies on the causes and methods of fighting terrorism, and only a
few have looked at means of reducing the future growth of terrorism (Choi,
2010; Greer, 2011). These studies have shown that by improving good
governance and the rule of law in post conflict societies, which are exposed to
terrorism, future incidences of terrorism will be significantly reduced.
Similarly, Krueger and Maleckova (2003) established causal connection between
education, poverty and terrorism. Accordingly, it was established that poor
economic conditions and other impediments to democratic institutions,
facilitate terrorism. However, no study was found, which examined the impact of
poverty reduction on the growth of future generational terrorists in post
conflict societies. The proposed study intends to fill that research gap.
Importance of the research
The importance of
this proposed study is to investigate how terrorists are created, so as to
better shape long-term public policy priorities on how to reduce future
terrorist threat. Since psychological and demographic factors are difficult to
measure, or somewhat impossible to create policy shift around (Hudson, Majeska,
Division, & Congress, 1999), they mostly will not constitute the nexus or
central focus of the study. But a number of psychological concepts are
structurally linked with key variables, which will be examined by the study.
Priority focus of the study is on the various motivations, which attract people
to terrorism while analyzing the social conditions that breed terrorism.
Moreover, the study will investigate country of origin of terrorists; conduct a
number of hypothetical tests to determine the effect of these social conditions
(good governance and rule of law, security, economic revitalization, and basic
infrastructural services), on the future generational growth of terrorism.
Purpose of the research
The primary purpose of the proposed study is to understand
how and why terrorists do what they do, and how these behaviors which compromise
innocent lives, can be curtailed. As indicated inter-alia, key priority of the
proposed study is to investigate how terrorists are created, so as to better
shape long-term public policy priorities on how to reduce future terrorist
threat. Moreover, qualitative research seeks to understand human behavior and
the prevailing circumstances that lead to that behavior (Creswell, 2007).
Hence, qualitative research offers answers to why or how decisions are arrived
at. Accordingly, answers to how or why decisions are made are mostly
investigated in five ways: ethnography, field research, phenomenology, grounded
theory, and case study. The purpose of this analysis is to individually analyze
these approaches, develop a research problem and purpose, along with a research
question. Finally, the objective is to defend why the problem, purpose, and
questions fit with the approach.
Through ethnography, a researcher can undertake to study an
entire culture as an outsider (Creswell, 2007). From a cultural perspective, to
truly understand the causes of terrorism as it relates to my proposed research,
it is helpful to look at it from the cultural aspect geographically. One
primary reason is the conjecture that most terrorists are of Islamic origin
from the Arabian Peninsula or the Middle East (Nye, 2008).
It cannot be over emphasized that the goal of any qualitative study is to understand a situation from the
perspective of the participants along with its specific or institutionally
underlying reasons. According to Myers (2009), “these social dynamics are
mostly missing whenever textual data are quantified.” However, this is why it is necessary for the
proposed study to adapt a mixed methodology approach not through triangulation,
Mingers (2001as cited in Creswell, 2007). Besides, there are a number of
distinctions, which have either been classified as objective or subjective,
sparred between the discoveries of natural laws (homothetic) and the
exclusivity of every unique situation (idiographic). Ideally, these are
tailored to either predict results through control, or through explanation and
understanding from an insider or outsider perspective.
Problem statement
The United
States’ efforts to fight terrorism, especially after 9/11, have mostly
emphasized counter-terrorism (Choi, 2010). While such efforts have been extremely
successful, they have not holistically addressed future generational growth of
terrorists (Greer, 2011). Hence, this problem of not having a successful plan
to tackle the future growth of terrorism is hindering current and future
counter-terrorism efforts (Greer, 2011; Nye, 2006; Martin, 2002; Choi, 2010).
Studies have systematically found that improving the rule of law in
non-democratic societies noted of harboring terrorists, reduces current and
future terrorism incidences (Choi, 2010; Greer, 2011).
Why pursued the study and for whom is it important?
One key importance
for the need of a study that reduces the threat of terrorism in the future, is
that current counter-terrorism efforts of the United States and its allies to
defeat radical Islamism through conventional warfare, has not emphasized future
reduction of terrorism threat. The focus has mostly been either militaristic or
law-enforcement (counter-terrorism). So far, the immediate goals of these counter-terrorism efforts have mostly emphasized capture or kill, arrest or
deter (Greer, 2011, p. 17). But, there is need for a third variable, influence
or diplomacy. Failure to incorporate a formidable plan that accentuates
American influence through diplomacy and development, will not only prolonged the
ambition of reducing the threat of terrorism, it will become a never ending
situation.
For instance, today,
the West led by the US is increasingly faced with threats from a globally
dispersed, but loosely organized non-state military configurations (Stern,
1999). Moreover, these non-state terrorist
actors are increasingly becoming more and more sophisticated with enough power
to influence and effect political changes, Martin (2002).
Besides, the
strategy used by the US to fight terrorism lacks a proper grand strategy, in
spite the emphasis of permanently destroying the enemy (Tien, Desgrosseilliers,
& Armfield, 2008). While it may be an important policy objective to
permanently destroy one’s enemy in warfare, a quicker way of defusing the power
of such enemy, is to morally defeat their objectives and influences, gravitated
by the rapid growth of information technology (as cited in Hammes, 2006).
Research design: phenomenology
The phenomenology
approach will be adopted in this research. In the phenomenological, the researcher
according to Creswell (2007) ”take the significant statements and then group
them into larger units of information called meaning unit or themes and coined
how the participants told their experience” this approach followed the general
guideline of analyzing the data for significant phrases, developing meanings
and clustering them into themes and presenting an exhaustive description of the
phenomenon which will enhanced my data collection and analysis techniques. I
will incorporate interview transcripts and other technological software such as
audio recording, excel spread and Nvivo. The application and use of this
approach will enhance the data collection process. For example, Merleau Ponty
(1956) wrote that “the researcher transcends or suspends past knowledge and
experience to understand a phenomenon at a deeper level. It is an
attempt to approach a lived experience with a sense of newness to elicit rich
and descriptive data.”
This makes phenomenology approach one of the ideas in
this research. In the phenomenological approach, the lived
experiences of participant can be generated through a data collection
process. Consideration will take the historical data and analysis of
the issues at hand and the current views of the participants. Nonetheless,
a phenomenological approach is somehow philosophical in that the objective is
to closely understand how the world is viewed by others, and how those views
may subjectively vary from individual to individual, Marshall and Rossman
(1999). Accordingly, phenomenological study takes the form of interviewing
participants and getting to understand their impressions or perspectives on a
given subject. For instance, participants could be asked open ended questions
on the impacts or consequences of terrorism (as suggested in Creswell, 2009).
Research questions
One
primary question, which will be addressed in this proposed study, is how likely
would complementing counter-terrorism measures with long-term diplomatic
solutions reduce the future growth of generational terrorists? The rationale
for such question is based on the assertion that the steady growth in terrorism
is psychological (Nye, 2006). The answers to this and other questions would be
answered through a set of hypothetical non-experimental designs (relational
designs). Mostly, relational designs or co-relational analyses normally
consider a range of variables which may be connected to a particular event
(Adèr, Mellenbergh, & Hand, 2008). In addition, each factor (i.e., anger,
grievance, revenge and strains), which exists because of hard power, will be
reevaluated on a case by case basis. Through case study, one or more analyses
can be made on a single variable. Contrary to other qualitative approaches,
which analyze specific group or institutions, case studies focus on a
particular variable, such as terrorism (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Thus, in a
case study, the research follows an interdisciplinary approach using various
theories and concepts to interpret the research data.
Theoretical or conceptual framework
From a theoretical
concept and perspective, institutions and scholars construct theory to address
concepts and problem of organization development, research and institutional
strategies in an academic environment. Reynolds (2010), indicated that,
theory “is frequently use to refer to number of other types of formulations,
usually abstract, including vague, conceptualizations or descriptions of events
or things, prescriptions about what are desirable social behaviors or
arrangements or any untested hypothesis or idea. The study hopes to utilize a
set of social theories to evaluate the impact of poverty reduction on the
growth of terrorism (Yayla, 2005; Russell & Miller, 1977). More
importantly, this research will utilize a number of relevant theoretical
concepts used in phenomenological studies.
Hypotheses
To assess the impacts of the four pillars on the growth of terrorism, the
study will examine how predictive these variables (governance and rule of law,
security, economic revitalization, and basic infrastructural services) are in
determining the country of origin of terrorism (Afghanistan, Iraq, and
Pakistan). A crucial factor that will be evaluated is the traditional position
of the United States, and how its policies will influence economic conditions
in sustaining democratic institutions. In view of this goal, the study will
attempt to measure the terrorist origin inevitability, individual poverty and
socio-economic status (i.e., unemployment), economic status (GDP per capita),
and others. It is also important to measure the strength or presence of law
enforcement, and its ability to effectively protect and police the state (e.g.,
money laundering), a key means through which criminal organizations facilitate
their actions (Greer, 2011, p. 17).
Data collection procedures and research plan
This proposed study will
largely use secondary data from various sources. For instance, over the span of
several decades, a number of terrorism databases have been created, which are
accessible for use. The proposed study will use data sources like the National
Counterterrorism Center’s World Tracking System (WITS); Global Terrorism
Database 1970-2007 (GTD); International Terrorism Attributes of Terrorist
Events (ITERATE); RAND; The Pinkerton Global Intelligence Service (PGIS); and
The American Terrorism Study database (ATS). However, for the purpose of
conducting hypothetical tests, an internet based survey will conducted, as
highlighted in the data collection methodology below.
Interview in data collection process
Interview
will be an integral part of the data collection process. Consideration of
interview as the best approach in the data collection process over observation
in this research is that, data collection and management can be effective with
the direct involvement of participants and the researcher. It helps reduces
biases and establish ethical standard in the data collection for the research
purpose and objective. For instance, in the interview process, the researcher
can directly state or quote what is obtained from participants as compared to
the observation method. In the observation approach, there is a high
probability of infusing biases into the data collection process. In John
Creswell (2003) words, he argued that “focus groups are advantageous when the
interaction among interviewees will likely yield the best information, when
interviewees are similar and cooperative with each other when time to collect
information is limited, and when individual interviewed one on one may be
hesitant to provide information Krueger (1994). This approach will involve
direct participants of the research and major players in the research.
Interview approach also eliminates data management risk and enhances ethical
standard in the research process.
Kind of interviewing protocol to develop
The kind
of interviewing protocol develop to conduct the interview will involved
selecting participants from country of
origin of terrorists, government agencies that are likely to benefit from the
study. For instance, using the qualitative interviews rules of thumb by Valerie
Janesick (2011), it indicates, that it is good to “established rapport with the
interviewee and establish a relaxed and open atmosphere and pace for the
interview”. On this basis, I will create the necessary interview environment
for the successful implementation of the research interview. For example, the
purpose, the use of the research data and the time frame of the research will
be discussed with all the interviewees.
Data management techniques employ
The data management
techniques that will be employed are developing contingency plans to maintain
the data in it its original form and status. For example, backing up copies of
computer files as argued by Davidson (1996). Using high quality tapes for audio
recording information during interviews and develops a master list of types of
information gathered and protects the privacy of the participants of the
research.
Role as the researcher
Traditionally,
the researcher’s role is to guide and provide all of the logistics and ethical
requirements of the study; and ensuring that the outcome of the study meets
institutional ethical standards (Patton, 2002). Additionally, it is the
researcher’s role to conduct interviews, collecting data, validating data and
prepare reports and provide strategic leadership for the research.
Sampling
The
sampling strategy selected is the typical case sampling strategy. This approach
could benefit my study base on the concept and objective of the typical case
sampling and my research goals and objectives. This strategy illustrates or
highlight what is typical. According to Michael Patton (2002), the typical case
sampling strategy “describes culture or program to people not familiar with the
setting studied; it can be helpful to provide a qualitative profile of one or
more typical cases’. The concept about sampling is that numbers of different
events are drawn as a case to conduct the sampling. For instance, using random
sampling as a case in point, Hamlet (1994) argued that “random testing simply
selects test cases from the entire input domain randomly and independently.
Random testing makes minimal use of the information from the specification or
the program code”. Patton (2002), indicated that in the typical case sampling,
“when entire programs or communities are the unit of analysis, the
processes and effects described for the typical program may be used to provide
a frame of reference for case studies of poor or excellent sites”. This makes
sampling an integral part of our researchers’ journey. As researcher, we have
moral and ethical obligation in pursuit of goals and objective of our research
focus. Our research sampling and data collection must be free of biases.
Sample size and how it was decided for the study
Patton
(2002) argued that there are “no rules in qualitative inquiry. Sample size
depends on what you want to know, the purpose or the inquiry, what is at stake,
what will be useful, what will have credibility and what can be done with
available time and resources.” Using the typical case sampling method, the
sample size will be mostly based on Afghanistan, Iraq, and Pakistan, countries
which post-war reconstruction efforts are being evaluated. Although a number of
sampling exist with the secondary data, which will be used by the proposed
study, a small sample size as small will be used for an internet survey
involving 131 participants (law enforcement and government agency officials). According
to Patton (2002), “the rationale purpose of random sampling was derived from
statistical probability theory.” Accordingly, random sampling or representative
sampling permits confident generalization from simple to large. This makes the
sample size very important in the research and the decision making process of
the research.
Why the sample size
Factors
leading to this decision are base on the strategic focus of the effective use
of this sampling mechanism. For instance, according to Michael Patton (2002),
in evaluation and policy research, the interests of decision makers will shape
the sampling strategy.” The samples size of 131 participants will create room
to establish a higher probability for decisions making. It will afford participants
the ability to better their policies.
Factors that contribute to this decision of the sample size
This
decision is based on the research environment. Michael Patton (2002) wrote that
“reason for site selections or individual case sampling need to be carefully
thought-out and explicit. Moreover, it is important to be open and clear about
study limitations, that is, to anticipate and address criticisms that may be
made of a particular sampling strategy especially from people who think that
the only high quality samples are random ones.”
Data analysis and interpretation plan
Accordingly, the qualitative and quantitative
aspects of the research design will be given equal attention, and done jointly.
For instance, I may investigate the cause(s) and effects of suicide bombing, using
qualitative and quantitative standardized instrument, along with an in-depth
interview. Both findings and data will be merged by means of a matrix and
reflected in the conclusion. In an attempt to validate the reliability of the
study, efforts will be made to justify that the importance of this issue, and
further demonstrate that the likely result will be the same even if a
subsequent research on this issue replicated in the future (Onwuegbuzie &
Leech, 2005). Thus, for the sake of consistency, and as indicated earlier, this
study will use triangulation to identify threats to internal validity. Being an
aspect of social science, there are lots of ethical concerns that are wrapped
around soft power that are very important to various audiences and society at
large. The quality of the data
will be high as credibility matters when it comes to this research. Biases will
be eliminated and high quality will remain priority in the research.
Ethical Concerns
Consistent with the ethical concerns cited in the
National Institute of Health (NIH) assessment, these issues are certainly
paramount to a study that examines the possibility of using soft power as a counter-terrorism strategy. In addition, the lessons learnt from the 1971
Stanford prison experiment and the lessons learned thereof, serve as added
synergy to the ethical standards of this research. Firstly, participation in this study would be
fully consensual—no one will be included in this study through survey and other
means, if they have not given their full consent in terms of full or partial
disclosures. To achieve this goal, this study has been designed to incorporate
those basic moral values surrounding the various legal and ethical research
implications (NIH; Creswell, 2009; Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005).
One of such ethical expectations has to do with
confidentiality. Consequently, confidential concerns mostly apply to those
participants, such as rehabilitated terrorists, or those serving prison times
for acts of terrorism, which are imminently in danger of hurting themselves and
others. The ensure that these and other
ethical standards are protected, there is an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
that will established by Walden to assist in reviewing this study against all
potential ethical violations against participants.
This study has also adopted codes to help
protect subjects and further guide the direction of the research—autonomous
participation, non-malfeasance (ensuring that participants are not
intentionally hurt by the study), but beneficence (rewarding to participants),
treat all human subjects in a just manner regardless of race, tribe, color and
creed, fidelity (i.e., ensuring that promises to participants are honestly
honored), genuineness (being truthful). Moreover, in addition to the ethical expectations
set by the IRB, Creswell (2009) has listed a number of ethical expectations
established by the research profession which this study will be utilizing.
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The
rationale for using this study is to mostly explore some of the psychological
dispositions that encourage people to engage in acts of terrorism. This study
is very important in that it provides the findings of quantifying the
moderating effects of seven properties of cognition, also known as the
Meta-analysis. Those seven properties covered--accessibility, temporal
stability, direct experience, involvement, certainty, ambivalence and
affective-cognitive consistency-on cognition-intention and cognition-behavior
relations. Literature searches revealed 44 studies that could be included in
the review. Findings showed that all of the properties, except involvement,
moderated attitude-behavior consistency.
Crenshaw,
M. (1992). How terrorists think: What psychology can contribute to understanding
terrorism? In L. Howard (Ed.).
This
text is a good source to evaluate the effects of harsh interrogation methods.
In continuation of terrorist mindset, the text Terrorism: Roots, impact,
responses. New York: Praeger. In this text edited by Lawrence Howard, a closer
look at terrorism in the 20th century, and the various transitional
stages are explored. The text drew together veteran experts on terrorism with
authorities in Islam, media studies, American history, and social psychology,
Howard presents a significant collection of essays that addresses the questions
of the origins, the impact, and the appropriate personal and public responses
to the phenomenon of terrorism. The volume is particularly useful in examining
how the media and military retaliation either exacerbate or check the
prevalence of terrorism.
Crenshaw,
M. (2000). The psychology of terrorism: An agenda for the 21st century.
Political Psychology, 21, 405-420.
In
trying to lay the historical basis of my proposed study, Crenshaw presents a
historical insight on political terrorism, going as far back as the early 1970s, to which terrorism
presented itself as a persistent problem.
Research on political terrorism, which began in the early 1970s, was
unrelentingly problematic—defining the concept, collecting empirical data,
building integrative theory, and avoiding the attribution of terrorism to
personality disorders or "irrationality."It also included, analysis risks being
driven by events or the concerns of policymakers. Howbeit, the lay back or
default attitude it is that psychological explanations of terrorism should be
multi-dimensional, therefore linking the individual to the group and to society
in general.
Hoffman, B. (1993). Holy terror. Santa Monica: RAND
This
study presented an in-depth look at the religious undertone as a motivating and
recruiting tool in terrorism. This study extensively dealt with religious
terrorism, and fanaticism, locally and internationally. It also looked at White
supremacist groups in the United States, a number of radical Jewish messianic
terrorist movements in Israel, radical Sikh Indian movements. One key position
of this text is that since most of these groups pride on apocalyptic beliefs,
the face of terrorism may be transitioning into a new and potentially dangerous
aspect.
Kraemer, E. (2004). "A philosopher looks
at terrorism." Pp. 113-131 in Nyatepe-Coo, A. & Zeisler-Vralsted, D.
(eds.). Understanding terrorism. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
This
study delved deeply into the driving forces that led to 9/11—through the lens
of historians, economists, psychologists, biologists, computer scientists, and
anthropologists, it discusses its many layers. These scholars explored the
causes that triggered 9/11 and other terrorist attacks, the role technology
plays in terrorism, the culture of extremist groups, and American reactions to
September 11th. The concluding chapter looked at the future of terrorism.
Sandler,
T., & Lapan. H. E. (1988). The calculus of dissent: An analysis of terrorists'
choice of targets. Synthesized, (76), 245-261.
This
article utilized various frameworks to conduct study on how terrorist
organizations launch attacks, the planning process, what comprised high
targets, and others. Every prioritized target of terrorists is deemed a must
accomplish objective—hence contemplate on the success and failure, and means of
attack. Domestic terrorists for their part are more likely to over extend high
priority targets is covered in this study. Thus the study found that “increased
information about terrorists' preferences, acquired by the targets, may
exacerbate inefficiency when deterrence efforts are not coordinated. In some
cases, perfect information may eliminate the existence of a non-cooperative
solution.”
Stitt, G. B. (2003). The understanding of
evil: A joint quest for criminology and theology. Pp. 203-218 in R. Chairs
& B. Chilton (eds.) Star Trek visions of law & justice. Dallas:
Adios Press.
Edited
by an assistant and an associate professor of their respective Departments of
Criminal Justice, Star Trek Visions of Law & Justice is a unique collection
of essays that speaks both to fans of the "Star Trek" television
series and to serious-minded students of the evolution of law and justice codes
in a rapidly transforming modern world. This study features an assortment of
academicians draw on the blue print of the movie, Star Trek as a model of the
future. The collection investigated the potential fallout for all-too-prevalent
legal predicaments of now and the future. Essays include "The Law of the
Federation", "What Color is an Android?", "Star Trek as a
Pedagogical Vehicle for Teaching Law and Justice", and a host of others.
Victoroff,
J. (2005). The mind of the terrorist: A review and critique of psychological
approaches. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 49, 3-42.
This article reviews the state of the art of available
theories and data regarding the psychology of terrorism. “Data and theoretical
material were gathered from the world's unclassified literature. Multiple theories
and some demographic data have been published, but very few controlled
empirical studies have been conducted investigating the pathological bases of
terrorism. The field is largely characterized by the theoretical speculation
based on subjective interpretation of anecdotal observations. Moreover, more
studies and theories fail to take into account the great heterogeneity of
terrorists. Many practical, conceptual, and psychological barriers have slowed
progress in this important field. Nonetheless, even at this early stage of
terrorism studies, preliminary reports suggest that modifiable social and
psychological factors contribute to the genesis of terrorist mind-set.
Psychological scholarship could possibly mitigate the risk of catastrophic
attack by initiating the long overdue scientific study of terrorist
mentalities.”
Wilson,
M. A. (2000). Toward a model of terrorist behavior in hostage-taking incidents.
Journal of Conflict Resolution, (44),
324-403.
In
the effort of finding a suitable theory to lead the way of my proposed
dissertation, this study shed light on the theory of planned behavior. Theory
of planned behavior emphasized that human behaviors are governed not only by
personal attitudes, but social pressures and a sense of control. This model,
when coupled with a few modifications, can generate some fascinating
predictions. For example, individuals are more likely to execute rather than
neglect their intentions, such as a plan to refrain from alcohol, if they
express these plans on more than one.
Aydin, M. (2007). De-legitimizing religion as a source of
identity-based security threats in a global world. The Quarterly Journal, (9), 1-18.
This
study provided a strong argument on the link between religion and terrorism.
The study presented three types of religious terrorism, repressive,
insurrectional, and social-revolutionary terrorism. This paper further looked
at the growing link between religious identities, globalization, and terrorism.
Within this context, the role of Islam in terrorism is extensively dealt with.
In addition, the study provided a critical insight between Islam as a religion
and Islam as a threat in the global world in which people are motivated by
economic insecurity and political dislocations and strongly cling to religion
and ethnic identities. The paper provided clear step by step strategies on how
to address religious terrorism.
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